HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT THE DEVELOPMENT AND HISTORY OF JAPANESE CASTLES Japanese castle fortification structures have an extremely long history. The word for castle was mentioned in the Nihon shoki, Japan's national history account, for the first time in the year 720 A.D.( Nishi and Hazumi 1985 What is Japanese Architecture? P96) Developing from a simple stone wall, they reached their pinnacle in the 16th Century, after undergoing extensive role changes which reflect the conditions of society, technologically, politically and socially at various stages. They continued to change until their role was drastically changed in 1615. A sketch of kogo-ishi remains that have been found.

1. Japanese Castles List

P96 There is still much disagreement between historians surrounding the question as to when the building of fortification began in Japan. Two types of remains have been discovered which are believed to have come from fortification structures constructed in the 6th and 7th Century. One of the fortification structures is referred to as chashi and was found on Hokkaido, Japan's most northern island as well as on the north-eastern area of Honshu, Japan's main island.( Hinago Japanese Castles p32) The other, known as kogo-ishi, was discovered in Kyushu, the island to the south of Japan's mainland. Chashi are thought to have been constructed by ancestors of the Ainu, Japan's native people who resided in Hokkaido at the time.

They were under constant attack from the Japanese government during the 6th and 7th Century and it is highly likely that the aboriginals built the chashi as a defence against the government. It is widely believed by archaeologists that the chashi consisted of a moat which enclosed the population as well as some small walls. Kogo-ishi were first believed to be stones which surrounded sacred sights, but after extensive research it was found that the stones were part of mountain fortifications.

These mountain fortifications consisted of rows of stones which ran along the side of small hills and reached a number of kilometres in length. In places, the stones were piled quite high resembling a wall.

There were also gaps in the row of stones where gates are believed to have existed. Fortifications are believed to have been introduced in Kyushu, due to the ever present threat of attack from Korea and China.( Hinago p32-33) Kyushu was way ahead of the rest of Japan in the area of military preparedness due to this constant threat.

The Heian era (794-1185), saw the rise of the samurai or the 'warrior class', which built up its own armed forces and fought for autonomy. Samurai families hoping to become part of the court moved to the capital, Kyoto, and began their struggle for power. Territorial warlords and samurai fought for supreme power over certain domains, and this era became known as the Medieval era. During this time warfare was quite limited and battles were brief encounters between forces of several dozen men or several hundred mounted warriors. Swords were the weapons primarily used in the medieval period and a typical battle often consisted of a barrage of arrows being fired and then a person to person combat using swords.( Kodansha Encyclopaedia p246)Castles and defensive fortifications were not the centre of the battle, as they were in Europe at the same time.

A vision of what the mountain castle looked like covered in clouds. P97 With the exception of the castles of northern Kyushu, which were built sturdy due to being under constant attack from the Asian mainland, castles at this time were not built as permanent fortifications because of the uneasiness of power. They were small in scale, and often put together at a time of crisis.

Stone walls were uncommon. Using the topography, they were built on the top of steep mountain ridges. ( Hinago p246) From on top of the hill, defenders could easily see an enemy approaching and they could use the time that it took for the enemy to climb the hill to set up their defence. Features of the medieval castle are quite difficult to construct as many of the castles of the feudal era were built on top of their ruins. In the late 14th Century there was a dispute surrounding the Imperial succession and from this time until the national leaders started to appear in the 16th century, fighting within Japan intensified.

The Muromachi period (1336-1576) is often referred to as the war years. Warlords started to build stronger more permanent fortifications on mountaintops, similar to their own residences but with towers on the roof. Close to one thousand castles are believed to have been built in Japan during this time.( Kodansha Encyclopaedia p246) A new era of warfare in Japan, the use of firearms. P601 The castle underwent severe physical changes as well as role changes during this time, due to a change in the style of warfare used in Japan, and due to the growth in power and support of the warlords of the era. By the 1600's, firearms were the most used weapons overriding the usage of spears and bows. Battles changed in style from invantry battles to calvary battles, and the need for a sturdier and stronger fortification arose. From the mid 15th Century warlords also began to grow in power and their desire for power escalated.

The warlord that gained enough power had the chance of becoming the shogun, and thus battles raged throughout the Sengoku period (1467 to 1603).( Kodansha Encyclopaedia p246) In order to protect the large territories that they occupied, the warlord found it necessary to build larger and more complex fortifications. ( jo meaning 'castle') built by Oda Nobunaga in 1576, was the first of the new generation of castles to be built. From this time on castle building became a national industry in Japan, and construction technology advanced rapidly. Officers known as bugyo or 'commissioners of works' were employed to oversee the building of the castle.( Hinago p90) Castles began to become closely associated with the commerce and government of the area and mountain sites became inappropriate for this domain. ( Nishi and Hazumi p97) They began to be built on a low plateaus and the hirayama-jo (plain-mountain) type became the standard type of castle being built in the feudal era.

The castle now being located on the plain, and facing attack by newly introduced weapons such as firearms, needed extra defensive features that were not necessary for mountain top fortifications. 'Ishiyama katsusen' A sketch of the Edo era. Men firing at their attackers through loopholes. P609 It is at this time that large, strong, stone walls were developed, moats were dug, earthworks added, and new defence and attack features introduced.( Kodansha p248) There was more concentration on the, of the castle and important castle features such as, and were introduced. The warlord became the master of his own area, being able to establish and administer his own taxation rates, laws, and even systems of weight and measure.( Nishi and Hazumi p102) Castles were built in the centre of the lords domain, and its function was no longer solely a defensive one. The castle now also contained the residence of the warlord and his personal retainers.

A musket, these were the first firearms introduced to Japan by the Portuegese. P604 People flocked to live in the area surrounding the castle due to the availability of work involved in the building of the castle, and also due to the status surrounding the castle. Towns called jokamachi 'castletowns' started to appear. The construction of castles led to the development of many of the towns which have become the major cities of Japan today. The building of Edo-jo led to the development of Tokyo, the building of Himeji-jo led to the development of the city Himeji and so on.

The well that was built inside of Himeji-jo.(Photo taken from p128) The three main warlords which influenced castle building techniques and styles were Oda Nobunaga, Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Ieyasu Tokugawa. It was Hideyoshi who constructed Osaka castle in 1582, in the same year as Azuchi-jo was destroyed. Osaka-jo was one of the most magnificent castles ever constructed. It covered 730,000 square kilometres, and had 5 towers the tallest being 9 stories high. It reputedly required three years of labour by up to 100,000 men.

Osaka-jo was unfortunately destroyed in 1615 in a battle with Ieyasu after a month long siege had taken place. Ieyasu took over it and recognising the importance of the location, he rebuilt the castle.( Kirby,J. From Castle to Teahouse p58) The warfare act of siege was introduced, and castles again underwent a slight change with larger storage space and equipment that would help sustain life, such as wells being introduced.

Ieyasu's defeat of Hideyoshi saw him reach national supremacy. In 1603 he became shogun, and started to work for national unity. For the sake of national unity, he issued a law in June, 1615 referred to as the ikkoku ichijo no rei 'one castle per province order'. ( Hinago p47) The government aiming to keep the leaders of the provinces weak and under control to avoid a rebellion.

The lords were only allowed to have one castle per province and it had to be the one inwhich they resided. Many castles were demolished. The links with the Feudal era cut. Extensions, repairs to towers, gateways, and walls, as well as any rebuilding of the castles were under rigid prohibitions. Permission from the government was necessary before any maintenance needed could be carried out on the castles. Even rebuilding after fire was strictly controlled. With the achievement of national unity, sense, time and circumstance meant that the castle was no longer needed.

Over the years all of Japan's castles have been destroyed to some extent. Some in World War 2, some in domestic fires and others in earthquakes.

The need for space in cities like Tokyo has also seen castle moats filled in to make more land.( Hinago p51) Today 37 castle sites are registered with the government and protected or preserved as 'important cultural properties' or 'national treasures'. Little is left of any of the original parts of the castles, but most have been reconstructed and are used as tourist sites, keeping the castle and all it represents very much alive, today.

A in, is the most visited castle in. Japanese castles ( 城, shiro) were constructed primarily of wood and stone. They evolved from the wooden of earlier centuries, and came into their best-known form in the 16th century. Castles in Japan were built to guard important or strategic sites, such as ports, river crossings, or crossroads, and almost always incorporated the landscape into their defenses. Though they were built to last and used more stone in their construction than most Japanese buildings, castles were still constructed primarily of, and many were destroyed over the years.

This was especially true during the (1467–1603), when many of these castles were first built. However, many were rebuilt, either later in the Sengoku period, in the (1603–1867) that followed, or more recently, as national heritage sites or museums.

Today there are more than one hundred castles extant, or partially extant, in; it is estimated that once there were five thousand. Some castles, such as the ones at and, both built in 1611, remain extant in their original forms, not having suffered any damage from sieges or other threats., on the opposite end of the spectrum, was destroyed in the, and was rebuilt in 1958 as a museum. The for castle, ', by itself read as shiro (its ), is read as jō (the Chinese-derived ) when attached to a word, such as in the name of a particular castle. Thus, for example, is called Ōsaka-jō (大阪城) in. Was a typical. Originally conceived as fortresses for military defense, Japanese castles were placed in strategic locations, along trade routes, roads, and rivers.

Though castles continued to be built with these considerations, for centuries, fortresses were also built as centres of governance. By the Sengoku period, they had come to serve as the homes of (feudal lords), to impress and to intimidate rivals not only with their defences but also with their sizes, architecture, and elegant interiors.

In 1576, was among the first to build one of these palace-like castles: was Japan's first castle to have a tower keep (天守閣, ), and it inspired both 's and 's. Azuchi served as the governing center of Oda's territories, and as his lavish home, but it was also very keenly and strategically placed.

A short distance away from the capital of Kyoto, which had long been a target of violence, Azuchi's carefully chosen location allowed it a great degree of control over the transportation and communication routes of Oda's enemies. Before the (roughly the 16th century), most castles were called yamajirō ( 山城, 'mountain castles').

Though most later castles were built atop mountains or hills, these were built from the mountains. Trees and other foliage were cleared, and the stone and dirt of the mountain itself was carved into rough fortifications. Ditches were dug, to present obstacles to attackers, as well as to allow boulders to be rolled down at attackers.

Moats were created by diverting mountain streams. Buildings were made primarily of, using thatched roofs, or, occasionally, wooden shingles. Small ports in the walls or planks could be used to deploy bows or fire guns from. The main weakness of this style was its general instability. Thatch caught fire even more easily than wood, and weather and soil erosion prevented structures from being particularly large or heavy. Eventually, stone bases began to be used, encasing the hilltop in a layer of fine pebbles, and then a layer of larger rocks over that, with no mortar.

This support allowed larger, heavier, and more permanent buildings. Early fortifications. The reconstructed western gate of.

The first fortifications in Japan were hardly what one generally associates with the term 'castles'. Made primarily of earthworks, or, and wood, the earliest fortifications made far greater use of natural defences and than anything man-made. These and (チヤシ, for castles) were never intended to be long-term defensive positions, let alone residences; the native peoples of the archipelago built fortifications when they were needed and abandoned the sites afterwards. The began to build cities in earnest in the 7th century, complete with expansive palace complexes, surrounded on four sides with walls and impressive gates.

Earthworks and wooden fortresses were also built throughout the countryside to defend the territory from the native, and other groups; unlike their primitive predecessors, these were relatively permanent structures, built in peacetime. These were largely built as extensions of natural features, and often consisted of little more than earthworks and wooden barricades. 710–794) fortress at, from which all of would be governed and defended for centuries afterwards, was originally constructed in this manner, and remnants can still be seen today.

A bulwark was constructed around the fortress to serve as a moat to aid in the defense of the structure; in accordance with military strategies and philosophies of the time, it would only be filled with water at times of conflict. This was called a mizuki ( 水城), or 'water fort'. The character for castle or fortress ( 城), up until sometime in the 9th century or later, was read (pronounced) ki, as in this example, mizuki.

Though fairly basic in construction and appearance, these wooden and earthwork structures were designed to impress just as much as to function effectively against attack. Chinese and Korean architecture influenced the design of Japanese buildings, including fortifications, in this period. The remains or ruins of some of these fortresses, decidedly different from what would come later, can still be seen in certain parts of Kyūshū and today. Medieval period The (794–1185) saw a shift from the need to defend the entire state from invaders to that of lords defending individual mansions or territories from one another. Though battles were still continually fought in the north-east portion of (the ) against native peoples, the towards the end of the period, and various disputes between noble families jostling for power and influence in the Imperial Court brought about further upgrades. The primary defensive concern in the archipelago was no longer native tribes or foreign invaders, but rather internal conflicts within Japan, between rival samurai clans or other increasingly large and powerful factions, and as a result, defensive strategies and attitudes were forced to change and adapt. As factions emerged and loyalties shifted, clans and factions that had helped the Imperial Court became enemies, and defensive networks were broken, or altered through the shifting of alliances.

The (1180–1185) between the and, and the Wars (1336–1392) between the Northern and Southern Imperial Courts are the primary conflicts that define these developments during what is sometimes called Japan's medieval period. Fortifications were still made almost entirely out of wood, and were based largely on earlier modes, and on Chinese and Korean examples. But they began to become larger, to incorporate more buildings, to accommodate larger armies, and to be conceived as more long-lasting structures. This mode of fortification, developed gradually from earlier modes and used throughout the wars of the (770–1185), and deployed to help defend the shores of Kyūshū from the of the 13th century, reached its climax in the 1330s, during the Nanboku-chō period. And, permanent castle complexes containing a number of buildings but no tall keep towers, and surrounded by wooden walls, were built by to be as militarily effective as possible, within the technology and designs of the time. The, established in the 1330s, had a tenuous grip on the archipelago, and maintained relative peace for over a century. Castle design and organization continued to develop under the Ashikaga shogunate, and throughout the Sengoku period.

Castle complexes became fairly elaborate, containing a number of structures, some of which were quite complex internally, as they now served as residences, command centres, and a number of other purposes. Sengoku The, which broke out in 1467, marked the beginning of nearly 150 years of widespread warfare (called the ) between daimyōs (feudal lords) across the entire archipelago. For the duration of the Ōnin War (1467–1477), and into the Sengoku period, the entire city of Kyoto became a battlefield, and suffered extensive damage. Noble family mansions across the city became increasingly fortified over this ten-year period, and attempts were made to isolate the city as a whole from the marauding armies of samurai that dominated the landscape for over a century. As regional officials and others became the daimyōs, and the country descended into war, they began to quickly add to their power bases, securing their primary residences, and constructing additional fortifications in tactically advantageous or important locations.

Originally conceived as purely defensive (martial) structures, or as retirement bunkers where a lord could safely ride out periods of violence in his lands, over the course of the Sengoku period, many of these mountain castles developed into permanent residences, with elaborate exteriors and lavish interiors. The beginnings of the shapes and styles now considered to be the 'classic' Japanese castle design emerged at this time, and (, 'town below castle') also appeared and developed.

Despite these developments, though, for most of the Sengoku period castles remained essentially larger, more complex versions of the simple wooden fortifications of centuries earlier. It was not until the last thirty years of the period of war that drastic changes would occur to bring about the emergence of the type of castle typified by and other surviving castles. This period of war culminated in the Azuchi–Momoyama period, the scene of numerous fierce battles, which saw the introduction of firearms and the development of tactics to employ or counter them. Azuchi–Momoyama period. Unlike in, where the advent of the spelled the end of the age of castles, Japanese castle-building was spurred, ironically, by the introduction of firearms. Though firearms first appeared in Japan in 1543, and castle design almost immediately saw developments in reaction, Azuchi castle, built in the 1570s, was the first example of a largely new type of castle, on a larger, grander scale than those that came before, boasting a large stone base ( 武者返し, musha-gaeshi), a complex arrangement of concentric ( 丸, maru), and a tall central tower. In addition, the castle was located on a plain, rather than on a densely forested mountain, and relied more heavily on architecture and manmade defenses than on its natural environment for protection.

These features, along with the general appearance and organization of the Japanese castle, which had matured by this point, have come to define the stereotypical Japanese castle. Along with Hideyoshi's, Azuchi lends its name to the brief (roughly 1568–1600) in which these types of castles, used for military defense, flourished. Was destroyed by cannon. This reproduction towers above the surroundings.

The introduction of the brought dramatic shifts in battle tactics and military attitudes in Japan. Though these shifts were complex and numerous, one of the concepts key to changes in castle design at this time was that of battle at range.

Though archery duels had traditionally preceded samurai battles since the or earlier, exchanges of fire with arquebuses had a far more dramatic effect on the outcome of the battle; hand-to-hand fighting, while still very common, was diminished by the coordinated use of firearms., one of the most expert commanders in the coordinated tactical use of the new weapon, built his Azuchi castle, which has since come to be seen as the paradigm of the new phase of castle design, with these considerations in mind. The stone foundation resisted damage from arquebus balls better than wood or earthworks, and the overall larger scale of the complex added to the difficulty of destroying it. Tall towers and the castle's location on a plain provided greater visibility from which the garrison could employ their guns, and the complex set of courtyards and baileys provided additional opportunities for defenders to retake portions of the castle that had fallen. Cannon were rare in Japan due to the expense of obtaining them from foreigners, and the difficulty in casting such weapons themselves as the foundries used to make bronze temple bells were simply unsuited to the production of iron or steel cannon. The few cannon that were used were smaller and weaker than those used in European sieges, and many of them were in fact taken from European ships and remounted to serve on land; where the advent of cannon and other artillery brought an end to stone castles in Europe, wooden ones would remain in Japan for several centuries longer. A few castles boasted 'wall guns', but these are presumed to have been little more than large caliber arquebuses, lacking the power of a true cannon. When siege weapons were used in Japan, they were most often or in the style, and they were used as anti-personnel weapons.

There is no record that the goal of destroying walls ever entered into the strategy of a Japanese siege. In fact, it was often seen to be more honorable, and more tactically advantageous on the part of the defender for him to lead his forces into battle outside the castle. When battles were not resolved in this way, out in the open, sieges were almost always undertaken purely by denying supplies to the castle, an effort that could last years, but involved little more than surrounding the castle with a force of sufficient size until a surrender could be elicited. The crucial development that spurred the emergence of a new type of defensive architecture was, thus, not cannon, but the advent of firearms. Firing squads and cavalry charges could overcome wooden stockades with relative ease, and so stone castles came into use. Azuchi Castle was destroyed in 1582, just three years after its completion, but it nevertheless ushered in a new period of castle-building.

Among the many castles built in the ensuing years was Hideyoshi's castle at Osaka, completed in 1585. This incorporated all the new features and construction philosophies of Azuchi, and was larger, more prominently located, and longer-lasting. It was the last bastion of resistance against the establishment of the Tokugawa shogunate (see ), and remained prominent if not politically or militarily significant, as the city of grew up around it, developing into one of Japan's primary commercial centers. Though stone was sometimes used to shore up defenses or foundations for a few centuries prior, Azuchi's distinctive style of stone base was the first of its kind, and was seen in every castle constructed afterwards.

The Japanese used cannon very infrequently, and the heavy stone foundations were more than sufficient to repel arquebus fire. Whether intentionally or not, these foundations also proved very resilient against Japan's frequent earthquakes. This period saw the climax of earlier developments towards larger buildings, more complex and concentrated construction, and more elaborate design, both externally and in the castles' interiors. European castle design began to have an impact as well in this period, though the castle had long been in decline in Europe by this point. In Japanese politics and warfare, the castle served not only as a fortress, but as the residence of the daimyō (feudal lord), and as a symbol of his power., which was meant to serve as a luxurious retirement home for Toyotomi Hideyoshi, serves as a popular example of this development. Though it resembled other castles of the period on the outside, the inside was lavishly decorated, and the castle is famous for having a tea room covered in gold leaf. Fushimi was by no means an exception, and many castles bore varying amounts of golden ornamentation on their exteriors.

Osaka castle was only one of a number of castles that boasted golden roof tiles, and sculptures of fish, cranes, and tigers. Certainly, outside of such displays of precious metals, the overall aesthetics of the architecture and interiors remained very important, as they do in most aspects of Japanese culture.

Some especially powerful families controlled not one, but a whole string of castles, consisting of a main castle ( honjō) and a number of satellite castles ( shijō) spread throughout their territory. Though the shijō were sometimes full-fledged castles with stone bases, they were more frequently fortresses of wood and earthenworks. Often, a system of fire beacons, or was set up to enable communications between these castles over a great distance. The and its network of satellites was one of the most powerful examples of this honjō-shijō system; the Hōjō controlled so much land that a hierarchy of sub-satellite networks was created Korea. The Ninomaru Garden at in is attributed to. The, roughly a century and a half of war that brought great changes and developments in military tactics and equipment, as well as the emergence of the Azuchi-Momoyama style castle, was followed by the, over two hundred and fifty years of peace, beginning around 1600–1615 and ending in 1868. Edo period castles, including survivors from the preceding Azuchi-Momoyama period, therefore no longer had defense against outside forces as their primary purpose.

Rather, they served primarily as luxurious homes for the daimyōs, their families and retainers, and to protect the daimyō, and his power base, against peasant uprisings and other internal insurrections. The, to forestall the amassing of power on the part of the daimyōs, enforced a number of regulations limiting the number of castles to one per (feudal domain), with a few exceptions, and a number of other policies including that of. Though there were also, at times, restrictions on the size and furnishings of these castles, and although many daimyōs grew quite poor later in the period, daimyō nevertheless sought as much as possible to use their castles as representations of their power and wealth. The general architectural style did not change much from more martial times, but the furnishings and indoor arrangements could be quite lavish.

This restriction on the number of castles allowed each han had profound effects not only politically, as intended, but socially, and in terms of the castles themselves. Where members of the samurai class had previously lived in or around the great number of castles sprinkling the landscape, they now became concentrated in the capitals of the han and in; the resulting concentration of samurai in the cities, and their near-total absence from the countryside and from cities that were not feudal capitals (Kyoto and Osaka in particular) were important features of the social and cultural landscape of the Edo period. Meanwhile, the castles in the han capitals inevitably expanded, not only to accommodate the increased number of samurai they now had to support, but also to represent the prestige and power of the daimyō, now consolidated into a single castle.

Edo castle, expanded by a factor of twenty between roughly 1600 and 1636 after becoming the shogunal seat. Though obviously something of an exception, the shōgun not being a regular daimyō, it nevertheless serves as a fine example of these developments.

These vastly consolidated and expanded castles, and the great number of samurai living, by necessity, in and around them, thus led to an explosion in urban growth in 17th century Japan. As contact with Western powers increased in the middle of the 19th century, some castles such as in were turned once again to martial purposes. No longer needed to resist samurai cavalry charges, or arquebus squads, attempts were made to convert Goryōkaku, and a handful of other castles across the country, into defensible positions against the cannon of Western naval vessels.

Modern period. Meiji Restoration Before the feudal system could be completely overturned, castles played a role in the initial resistance to the Meiji Restoration. In January 1868, the broke out in, between samurai forces loyal to the disaffected government, and allied forces loyal to the new, which consisted mainly of samurai and from the and domains. By January 31, the Bakufu army had retreated to in disarray and the, had fled to (later Tokyo). Osaka Castle was surrendered to the Imperial forces without a fight, and on February 3, 1868, Osaka Castle was burned.

The destruction of Osaka Castle, which was a significant symbol of the power of the Shogun in western Japan, dealt a major blow to the prestige of the shogunate and the morale of their troops. From Edo, the Bakufu forces fled north to the domain, from whence a large number of their troops hailed. As the opened, Nagaoka and were the scenes of heavy fighting. In the course of battle, Komine Castle was burned (it was re-built in 1994). The allied forces continued north to the city of, and lay siege to. After a month, with the walls and main tower pock-marked by bullets and cannonballs, was finally surrendered. It was later demolished and not re-built until 1965.

The star shaped fortress of From Aizu, some Bakufu loyalists made their way north to the city of, on. There they set up the, centered on a government building within the walls of, a Russian-style, which is nonetheless often included in lists and in literature on Japanese castles. After the fierce, the fortress of Goryōkaku was under siege, and finally surrendered on May 18, 1869, bringing an end to the Boshin War. All castles, along with the feudal domains themselves, were turned over to the in the 1871. During the, these castles were viewed as symbols of the previous ruling elite, and nearly 2,000 castles were dismantled or destroyed. Others were simply abandoned and eventually fell into disrepair. Rebellions continued to break out during the first years of the Meiji period.

The last and largest was the (1877). After heated disagreements in the new Tokyo legislature, young former samurai of the Satsuma domain rashly decided to rebel against the new government, and lobbied to lead them. Saigo reluctantly accepted, and led Satsuma forces north from. Hostilities commenced on February 19, 1877, when the defenders of fired on the Satsuma troops. Fierce gave way to a siege, but by April 12, reinforcements of the Imperial army arrived to break the siege. After a series of battles, the Satsuma rebels were forced back to Kagoshima city.

Fighting continued there, and the stones walls of still show the damage done by bullets. (Kagoshima Castle was never re-built, but portions of the stone walls and the moat were left intact, and later the prefectural history museum was built on the castle's foundation.) The rebel force made their last stand on, or 'Castle Mountain', probably named for a castle built there some time in the past, whose name has been lost in history. During the final battle, Saigo was mortally wounded, and the last forty rebels charged the Imperial troops and were cut down.

The Satsuma Rebellion came to an end at the on the morning of September 25, 1877. Imperial Japanese Army Some castles, especially the larger ones, were used by the. Osaka Castle served as the headquarters for the, until public funds paid for the construction of a new headquarters building within the castle grounds and a short distance from the main tower, so that the castle could be enjoyed by the citizens and visitors of Osaka. Served as during the (1894–1895) and later as the headquarters for the; served as HQ for the 9th Infantry Division.

For this reason, and as a way to strike against the morale and culture of the Japanese people, many castles were. The main towers of the castles at, among others, were all destroyed during air raids. Hiroshima Castle is notable for having been destroyed in the on August 6, 1945. It was also on the grounds of Hiroshima Castle that news of the atomic bombing was first transmitted to Tokyo.

When the atomic bomb detonated, a team of volunteer high school girls had just taken their shift on a radio in a small fortified bunker in the main courtyard of Hiroshima Castle. The girls transmitted the message that the city had been destroyed, to the confused disbelief of the officers receiving the message in Tokyo. (actually a ), on was not only the headquarters for the and the defense of, but also has the distinction of the being the last castle in Japan attacked by an invading force. In April 1945, Shuri Castle was the coordinating point for a line of outposts and defensive positions known as the 'Shuri Line'. US Soldiers and Marines encountered fierce resistance and all along the Shuri Line. Starting on May 25, the castle was subjected to three days of intense from the.

On May 28, a company of US Marines took the castle, finding that the intensity of the destruction had prompted the headquarters contingent to abandon the castle and link up with scattered units and continue the defense of the island. On May 30, the US flag was raised over one of the of the castle. Shuri Castle was re-built in 1992, and is now an. Reconstruction and conservation During the early 20th century, a new movement for the preservation of heritage grew.

The first law for the preservation of sites of historical or cultural significance was enacted in 1919, and was followed ten years later by the 1929 National Treasure Preservation Law. With the enactment of these laws, local governments had an obligation to prevent any further destruction, and they had some of the funds and resources of the national government to improve on these historically significant sites.

By the 1920s, was on the rise, and a new pride was found in the castles, which became symbols of Japan's warrior traditions. With new advances in construction, some of the previously destroyed castles were re-built quickly and cheaply with, such as the main tower of, which was first re-built in 1928.

While many of the remaining castles in Japan are reconstructions, and most of these are steel-reinforced concrete replicas, there has been a movement toward traditional methods of construction. Is a remarkable example of a modern reproduction using a significant degree of traditional construction materials and techniques. Modern construction materials at Kanazawa Castle are minimal, discreet, and are primarily in place to ensure stability, safety concerns, and accessibility. At present, there are local non-profit associations that are attempting to collect funds and donations for the historically accurate re-construction of the main towers at on, and in. There are only twelve castles that are considered 'original':. Most of these are in areas of Japan that were not subjected to the strategic bombing of World War II, such as in or in the.

Great care is taken with these structures; open flame and smoking near the castles is usually prohibited, and visitors are usually required to remove their shoes before stepping on the wooden floors (slippers are usually provided). Local legends or ghost stories may also be associated with some of these castles; the most famous is probably the tale of, based on events that occurred at. Earthen ramparts around the main courtyard at the site of At the other end of the spectrum are castles that have been left in ruins, though usually after archaeological surveys and excavations have been done. Most of these belong to or are maintained by local municipal governments. Some have been incorporated into public parks, such as the ruins of Kuwana Castle and in, Kunohe Castle (, ), or. Others have been left in more natural state, often with a marked hiking trail, such as, (, Mie Prefecture), Kame Castle (, Fukushima Prefecture), Kikoe Castle (Kagoshima city), or Kanegasaki Castle ( city, ).

The grounds of some were developed with municipal buildings or schools. In, Mie Prefecture, the city hall and an elementary school were built on the site of Toba Castle. Some castle sites are now in the hands of private landowners, and the area has been developed. Vegetable plots now occupy the site of Kaminogo Castle (, Aichi), and a orchard has been planted on the site of, though in both cases some of the castle-related topography can still be seen, such as the. Finally there are the castle sites that have not been maintained or developed to any degree, and may have few markings or signs. Historical significance and local interest are too low to warrant additional costs. This includes Nagasawa Castle (, Aichi), Sakyoden Castle (Toyohashi, Aichi), Taka Castle (Matsuzaka, Mie), and Kuniyoshi Castle (, ).

Castle sites of this type also include nearly every area marked 'Castle Mountain' ( 城山 Shiroyama) on the maps of towns and cities across Japan. Because the castle was small or may have been used for a short time in centuries past, the name of the castle is often lost to history, such as the 'Shiroyama' at, or the 'Shiroyama' between and near,. In such cases, locals might not be aware there ever was a castle, believing that the name of the mountain is 'just a name'.

Detailed city maps will often have such sites marked. At the site, castle-related landscaping, such as ramparts, partly filled wells, and a leveled hilltop or a series of terraces, will provide evidence of the original layout of the castle. Whether original or reconstructions, numerous castles across Japan serve as history and folk museums, as points of pride for local people, and as tangible structures reflecting Japanese history and heritage. As castles are associated with the martial valor of past warriors, there are often monuments near castle structures or in their parks dedicated to either samurai or soldiers of the Imperial Army who died in war, such as the monument to the near the ruins of Yoshida Castle (Toyohashi, Aichi). Castle grounds are often developed into parks for the benefit of the public, and planted with trees, trees, and other flowering plants.

In and in are both famous in their respective regions for their cherry blossom trees. The efforts of dedicated groups, as well as various agencies of the government has been to keep castles as relevant and visible in the lives of the Japanese people, to showcase them to visitors, and thus prevent the neglect of national heritage. Architecture and defenses Japanese castles were built in a variety of environments, but all were constructed within variations of a fairly well-defined architectural scheme.

Yamajiro (山城), or 'mountain castles' were the most common, and provided the best natural defenses. However, castles built on flat plains (平城, hirajiro) and those built on lowlands hills (平山城, hirayamajiro) were not uncommon, and a few very isolated castles were even built on small natural or artificial islands in lakes or the sea, or along the shore. The science of building and fortifying castles was known as chikujo-jutsu (: 築城術). Walls and foundations. The steep stone walls beneath are known as musha-gaeshi (武者返し, 'repelling warriors'). Japanese castles were almost always built atop a hill or mound, and often an artificial mound would be created for this purpose.

Japanese Castles List

This not only aided greatly in the defense of the castle, but also allowed it a greater view over the surrounding land, and made the castle look more impressive and intimidating. In some ways, the use of stone, and the development of the architectural style of the castle, was a natural step up from the wooden stockades of earlier centuries. The hills gave Japanese castles sloping walls, which many argue helped (incidentally) to defend them from Japan's frequent earthquakes. There is some disagreement among scholars as to whether or not these stone bases were easy to scale; some argue that the stones made easy hand- and footholds, while others retort that the bases were steep, and individual stones could be as large as 6 m (20 ft) high, making them difficult if not next to impossible to scale. Thus, a number of measures were invented to keep attackers off the walls and to stop them from climbing the castle, including pots of hot sand, gun emplacements, and arrow slits from which defenders could fire at attackers while still enjoying nearly full cover.

Spaces in the walls for firing from were called sama; arrow slits were called yasama, gun emplacements tepposama and the rarer, later spaces for cannon were known as taihosama. Unlike in European castles, which had walkways built into the walls, in Japanese castles, the walls' timbers would be left sticking inwards, and planks would simply be placed over them to provide a surface for archers or gunners to stand on.

This standing space was often called the ishi uchi tana or 'stone throwing shelf'. Other tactics to hinder attackers' approaches to the walls included, bamboo spikes planted into the ground at a diagonal, or the use of felled trees, their branches facing outwards and presenting an obstacle to an approaching army. Many castles also had trapdoors built into their towers, and some even suspended logs from ropes, to drop on attackers.

The Anō family from were the foremost castle architects in the late 16th century, and were renowned for building the 45-degree stone bases, which began to be used for keeps, gatehouses, and corner towers, not just for the castle mound as a whole. Japanese castles, like their European cousins, featured massive stone walls and large moats. However, walls were restricted to the castle compound itself; they were never extended around a jōkamachi (castle town), and only very rarely were built along borders. This comes from Japan's long history of not fearing invasion, and stands in stark contrast to philosophies of defensive architecture in Europe, China, and many other parts of the world. Even within the walls, a very different architectural style and philosophy applied, as compared to the corresponding European examples.

A number of tile-roofed buildings, constructed from plaster over skeletons of wooden beams, lay within the walls, and in later castles, some of these structures would be placed atop smaller stone-covered mounds. These wooden structures were surprisingly fireproof, as a result of the plaster used on the walls. Sometimes a small portion of a building would be constructed of stone, providing a space to store and contain gunpowder. Though the area inside the walls could be quite large, it did not encompass fields or peasants' homes, and the vast majority of commoners likewise lived outside the castle walls. Samurai lived almost exclusively within the compound, those of higher rank living closer to the daimyō's central keep.

In some larger castles, such as Himeji, a secondary inner moat was constructed between this more central area of residences and the outer section where lower-ranking samurai kept their residences. Only a very few commoners, those directly in the employ and service of the daimyō or his retainers, lived within the walls, and they were often designated portions of the compound to live in, according to their occupation, for purposes of administrative efficiency.

Overall, it can be said that castle compounds contained only those structures belonging to the daimyō and his retainers, and those important to the administration of the domain. A hanging scroll painting of, giving some indication of the overall layout of the castle, and the complex arrangement of walls and paths that would present a considerable obstacle to an invading army. The primary method of defense lay in the arrangement of the, called maru (丸) or ( 曲輪). Maru, meaning 'round' or 'circle' in most contexts, here refers to sections of the castle, separated by courtyards. Some castles were arranged in concentric circles, each maru lying within the last, while others lay their maru in a row; most used some combination of these two layouts.

Since most Japanese castles were built atop a mountain or hill, the topography of the location determined the layout of the maru. The 'most central bailey', containing the keep, was called honmaru (本丸), and the second and third were called ni-no-maru (二の丸) and san-no-maru (三の丸) respectively.

These areas contained the main tower and residence of the daimyō, the storerooms ( 蔵 or 倉), and the living quarters of the garrison. Larger castles would have additional encircling sections, called soto-guruwa or sōguruwa. At many castles still standing today in Japan, only the honmaru remains.

In Kyoto is an interesting exception, in that the ni-no-maru still stands, while all that remains of the honmaru is the stone base. Layout of, c. The arrangement of gates and walls sees one of the key tactical differences in design between the Japanese castle and its European counterpart.

A complex system of a great many gates and courtyards leading up to the central keep serves as one of the key defensive elements. This was, particularly in the case of larger or more important castles, very carefully arranged to impede an invading army and to allow fallen outer portions of the compound to be regained with relative ease by the garrisons of the inner portion. The defenses of Himeji castle are an excellent example of this. Since sieges rarely involved the wholesale destruction of walls, castle designers and defenders could anticipate the ways in which an invading army would move through the compound, from one gate to another. As an invading army passed through the outer rings of the Himeji compound, it would find itself directly under windows from which rocks, hot sand, or other things could be dropped, and also in a position that made them easy shots for archers in the castle's towers. Gates were often placed at tight corners, forcing a effect upon the invading force, or even simply at right angles within a square courtyard.

Passageways would often lead to blind alleys, and the layout would often prevent visitors (or invaders) from being able to see ahead to where different passages might lead. All in all, these measures made it impossible to enter a castle and travel straight to the keep.

Invading armies, as well as, presumably, anyone else entering the castle, would be forced to travel around and around the complex, more or less in a spiral, gradually approaching the center, all while the defenders prepared for battle, and rained down arrows and worse upon the attackers. All of that said however, castles were rarely forcibly invaded. It was considered more honorable, and more appropriate, for a defender's army to sally forth from the castle to confront his attackers. When this did not happen, sieges were most often performed not through the use of siege weapons or other methods of forced entry, but by surrounding the enemy castle and simply denying food, water, or other supplies to the fortress. As this tactic could often take months or even years to see results, the besieging army sometimes even built their own castle or fortress nearby.

This being the case, 'the castle was less a defensive fortress than a symbol of defensive capacity with which to impress or discourage the enemy'. It of course also served as the lord's residence, a center of authority and governance, and in various ways a similar function to military. Buildings. A yagura, or turret, at in. The castle keep, usually three to five stories tall, is known as the tenshukaku　(天守閣), and may be linked to a number of smaller buildings of two or three stories. Some castles, notably Azuchi, had keeps of as many as seven stories.

The tallest and most elaborate building in the complex, and often also the largest, the keep was the residence of the daimyō and his central command post. The number of stories and building layout as perceived from outside the keep rarely corresponds to the internal layout; for example, what appeared to be the third story from outside may have in fact been the fourth. This certainly must have helped to confuse attackers, preventing them from knowing which story or which window to attack, and likely disorienting the attacker somewhat once he made his way in through a window.

The least militarily equipped of the castle buildings, the keep was defended by the walls and towers, and its ornamental role was never ignored; few buildings in Japan, least of all castle keeps, were ever built with attention to function purely over artistic and architectural form. Keeps were meant to be impressive not only in their size and in implying military might, but also in their beauty and the implication of a daimyō's wealth. Though obviously well within the general sphere of, much of the aesthetics and design of the castle was quite distinct from styles or influences seen in Shintō shrines, Buddhist temples, or Japanese homes. The intricate and windows are a fine example of this. On those occasions when a castle was infiltrated or invaded by enemy forces, the central keep served as the last bastion of refuge, and a point from which counter-attacks and attempts to retake the castle could be made.

If the castle ultimately fell, certain rooms within the keep would more often than not become the site of the (ritual suicide) of the daimyō, his family, and closest retainers. Reconstructed from the nearby. Lined the top of the castle's walls, and patches of trees, usually, symbolic of eternity or immortality, were planted along them. These served the dual purpose of adding natural beautiful scenery to a daimyō's home, representing part of his garden, and also obscuring the insides of the castle compound from spies or scouts. A variety of towers or turrets, called (櫓), placed at the corners of the walls, over the gates, or in other positions, served a number of purposes.

Though some were used for the obvious defensive purposes, and as watchtowers, others served as water towers or for moon-viewing. As the residences of purportedly wealthy and powerful lords, towers for moon-viewing, balconies for taking in the scenery, tea rooms and gardens proliferated. These were by no means solely martial structures, but many elements served dual purposes. Gardens and orchards, for example, though primarily simply for the purpose of adding beauty and a degree of luxuriousness to the lord's residence, could also provide water and fruit in case of supplies running down due to siege, as well as wood for a variety of purposes. Gallery Aerial views of Japanese castles reveal a consistent military strategy that informs the over-all planning for each unique location.

The term samurai, deriving from saburai ('one who serves'), refers both to the armed feudal retainers who fought for their lords in feudal Japan, but also to the noble warrior class as a whole. Thus, unlike the European, the samurai was a samurai by virtue of his birth, retaining this status regardless of his rank. The samurai bore close ties to his clan (the noble family of his lineage), and to other clans to which his own owed fealty, serving loyally in the defence of his lord's lands, in attacks of enemy lands, or in a great number of other ways.

For more on the role of the samurai class and its development over time, see. The only invasion attempts upon Japan in the 2nd millennium, these had a not insignificant impact upon defences in and around, where the Mongols landed, but are exceptions to the trend of internal warfare which guided military developments in pre-modern Japan. in Kyūshū, one of the wealthiest and most powerful domains, doled out sub-fiefs and was allowed by the shogunate to maintain a number of subsidiary castles within their domain; this came largely out of Satsuma's strength and leadership, as well as the inability of the shogunate to effectively enforce many policies in Satsuma. Consider, for example, defenses such as and the, as well as the city walls built throughout Europe and England across history, by the and for centuries afterwards, along with comparable examples in China and elsewhere. While maru (丸) most literally translates simply to 'round' or 'circle', kuruwa denotes an area enclosed by earthworks or other walls, and was a term also used to denote the enclosed such as the during the Edo period.

As it relates to castles, most castles had three maru, main baileys, which could be called kuruwa; additional areas beyond this would be called sotoguruwa (外廓), or 'kuruwa that are outside'. References.